IGF-1 comes up often in conversation and rarely with the context attached. Here we lay out the basics in order, then work through the practical considerations.
Last reviewed on 2025-09-27. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Clinical development of AOD-9604 included trials in people with obesity. Reports from early-phase and mid-phase studies described modest or inconsistent changes in body weight. A phase IIb program did not meet its primary endpoint, and the compound was not approved for medical use. Differences in formulation, delivery route, and participant characteristics may explain some of the variation. Later investigations explored whether the peptide might have effects in other tissues, including cartilage.
Regulatory treatment of AOD-9604 is shaped by its classification as a peptide hormone. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists it as a prohibited substance, and many national anti-doping organizations adopt that list. It does not hold approval as a prescription medicine in the United States, the European Union, or other major markets. Products sold online are frequently labeled for research use only and may not undergo independent quality testing. Import and possession rules differ by country, so legal status depends on local law.
Proposed mechanisms for AOD-9604 focus on fat cells. Laboratory studies suggest the peptide can increase lipolysis, the breakdown of stored fat, and reduce lipogenesis, the formation of new fat. Unlike full human growth hormone, it does not appear to stimulate substantial IGF-1 production in the studies reported so far. Some evidence points to beta-adrenergic signaling, but the precise receptor targets and downstream pathways remain unresolved. The fragment is not thought to act through the classical growth hormone receptor.
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide whose structure corresponds to a C-terminal segment of human growth hormone. It is often described as hGH fragment 176-191, a 16-amino-acid sequence. The peptide was designed to isolate a region of hGH associated with fat metabolism while avoiding the full hormone's growth-promoting actions. Laboratory and commercial materials typically present it as a lyophilized powder for research use. Its identity is defined by amino acid sequence, not by a single brand.
The fragment includes residues that can form an internal disulfide bond between two cysteine positions. This structural feature can influence how the peptide folds and how stable it is in solution. AOD-9604 differs from full-length hGH in size and receptor interactions; it does not contain the entire growth hormone sequence. Published descriptions sometimes use slightly different residue numbering, so sequence information should be checked against primary sources. The molecule is small compared with intact hGH, which affects analytical detection and purification approaches.
Interest in AOD-9604 arose from attempts to separate metabolic effects from growth effects attributed to hGH. Early work explored whether the fragment could influence lipolysis or fat oxidation without promoting growth. Those questions remain partly unresolved because human data are limited and results have varied across studies. The peptide is not a hormone replacement for hGH and is not equivalent to hGH in clinical use. Its research history includes both laboratory studies and commercial marketing claims that are not the same as regulatory approval.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical storage temperature | -20 °C | Lyophilized peptide; protect from moisture and light. |
| Typical analytical method | HPLC and mass spectrometry | Used to confirm identity and estimate purity. |
| Common synonyms | AOD9604; hGH 176-191 | Naming varies by supplier and publication. |
| Disulfide bonds | One | Affects folded structure and stability. |
| Typical research purity | ≥95% | Value depends on supplier and analytical method. |
AOD9604 is commonly supplied as a white to off-white lyophilized powder. The powder is typically stored at -20 °C or below, protected from light and moisture, because peptides can degrade through oxidation, hydrolysis, or aggregation. If it is reconstituted for laboratory use, an appropriate aqueous buffer or solvent is chosen, and the solution is kept cold and handled to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles. These practices support stability but do not imply suitability for human use.
Identity and purity are usually assessed with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Reversed-phase HPLC separates the peptide from related impurities and can estimate purity by ultraviolet absorbance, while mass spectrometry confirms the molecular mass and detects modifications. Peptide mapping, amino acid analysis, and disulfide mapping may be used when the sequence or disulfide arrangement must be verified. Because AOD9604 contains cysteine residues, oxidation and disulfide isomers are possible quality concerns in synthetic batches.
Quality varies among research-grade suppliers, so certificates of analysis and independent testing are important for verification. A typical certificate reports purity by HPLC, identity by mass spectrometry, appearance, and sometimes residual solvents or water content. AOD9604 is often sold as a research chemical not intended for human consumption, and labels can be inaccurate. Common misconceptions include treating the peptide as a form of growth hormone, assuming supplement status, or expecting approved-drug quality from unregulated products.
AOD-9604 has been investigated primarily as a potential treatment for obesity and related metabolic conditions. Early laboratory work examined its effects on fat cells, and later studies moved into animal models and human clinical trials. Some trials reportedly reached Phase II, but the program did not lead to an approved medicine. Published summaries often note that weight-loss results were modest or inconsistent. The full trial data are not all publicly available in detail.
Regulatory treatment of AOD-9604 has varied. In sports anti-doping, the peptide became widely discussed during a 2013 investigation into an Australian professional sports club. Authorities at the time debated whether it fell under prohibitions on growth hormone and related substances. Later clarifications and updated lists have addressed the compound in different ways. Anyone seeking current status should consult the latest applicable rules, and commercial supply for human use is not authorized in major markets.
Dilworth Wayne Woolley (July 20, 1914 – July 23, 1966) was a Canadian-born American biochemist, who did important work on vitamin deficiency, and was one of the first to study the role of serotonin in brain chemistry. He was nominated for a Nobel Prize in 1939, 1948, 1949, and 1950.
== Deficiency == Plasma vitamin C is the most widely applied test for vitamin C status. Adequate levels are defined as near 50 μmol/L. Hypovitaminosis of vitamin C is defined as less than 23 μmol/L, and deficiency as less than 11.4 μmol/L. For people 20 years of age or above, data from the US 2017–18 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey showed mean serum concentrations of 53.4 μmol/L. Deficiency was reported in 5.9% of people. Globally, vitamin C deficiency is common in low and middle-income countries, and not uncommon in high income countries. In the latter, prevalence is higher in males than in females. Plasma levels are considered saturated at about 65 μmol/L, achieved by intakes of 100 to 200 mg/day, which are well above the recommended intakes. Even higher oral intake does not further raise plasma nor tissue concentrations because absorption efficiency decreases and any excess that is absorbed is excreted in urine.
The D'/D3 domain: Binds to factor VIII, heparin, and P-selectin. The A1 domain: Binds to the platelet GPIb-receptor, collagen types IV and VI, heparin, and osteoprotegerin. The A2 domain: Unfolds to expose the cleavage site for ADAMTS13 protease, which cleaves VWF into smaller multimers. Unfolding is influenced by blood shear flow, calcium binding, and a "vicinal disulfide" at the A2-domain's C-terminus. The A3 domain: Acts as the primary collagen binding site for VWF, binding to collagen types I and III. The C4 domain: Contains an RGD motif that binds to platelet integrin αIIbβ3. The CK (cystine knot) domain at the protein's C-terminal end: Involved in VWF dimerization. VWF is one of the few proteins carrying ABO blood group antigens. After glycosylation in the Golgi apparatus, VWF is packaged into storage granules, Weibel–Palade bodies (WPBs) in endothelial cells, and α-granules in platelets.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== New ownership === In December 2017, Patrick Cryne and his family sold an 80% stake in the club to NewCity Capital's Chien Lee and Pacific Media Group's Paul Conway. They were joined by Indian investor Neerav Parekh and Billy Beane, minority owner of and advisor for the Athletics, who was widely known for the Moneyball film portrayal, as part of an international investor consortium. Barnsley were relegated to the third tier in 2017–18. Following this, the new owners adopted a data-driven approach to identify talents, focusing on young players and team rebuilding. The club appointed Daniel Stendel as head coach, who introduced a high-pressing style of play. Barnsley were promoted back to the Championship the following season. In the 2019–20 season, under new coach Gerhard Struber, Barnsley avoided relegation from the Championship. In 2020–21, under the management of Valérien Ismaël, Barnsley finished fifth place and reached the EFL Championship Play-offs for the first time in 24 years, doing so with the youngest squad and one of the smallest budgets in the division. The Wall Street Journal called Barnsley a "Moneyball experiment". Prior to the 2021–22 season, Markus Schopp was appointed as the new head coach. In November 2021, he was dismissed after seven consecutive defeats. Three weeks later Poya Asbaghi was appointed as his successor. Fortunes improved little as Barnsley were relegated from the 2021–22 EFL Championship following a 2–1 defeat against Huddersfield Town. Asbaghi left the club by mutual consent shortly afterwards.
== Pharmacokinetics == In infected individuals, the elimination half-life of artesunate is about 0.22 hours. Its active metabolite, DHA, has a slightly longer half-life of 0.34 hours. Overall, the average half-life ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 hours. Because of its short half-life, its use in malaria prevention is limited. DHA is metabolized to an inactive metabolite by the liver enzymes CYP2B6, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4.
Nanoparticles are drug delivery systems ranging from 1–1000 nm in diameter. Lipid-based and polymer-based nanocarriers are commonly used for nose-to-brain delivery as they exert high stability, solubility, and adherence. Exosomes and dendrimers are other potential nanocarriers. Nanosystems can be synthesized either using physical or chemical methods. A few physical methods include evaporation-condensation reaction and laser ablation. Irradiation, microemulsion, and chemical reduction are common chemical techniques to develop nanoparticles. Sonication, electroporation, and incubation are common methods to load drugs into nanocarriers. Coating these nanosystems with mucoadhesive agents, stimulus-sensitive materials, or antibodies can enhance biocompatibility, clearance rates, specificity, and bioavailability. Penetration and absorption enhancers can significantly increase the overall efficacy of the system. Imaging studies along with measurement of drug transfer efficiency and bioavailability can further support the role of these drug delivery systems.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Ionization of acids is less in an acidic solvent than in water. For example, hydrogen chloride is a weak acid when dissolved in acetic acid. This is because acetic acid is a much weaker base than water.
== Synthesis == The synthesis (in this case, of carbon-14-labelled material) can be seen in figure 1. In the first step, o-nitroaniline (compound 1) is purified through dissolution in hot water-ethanol mixture in relation 2:1. [Activated carbon] is added and the result is filtrated for clarifying. The filtrate is chilled while kept in movement to generate crystals, usually at 4 °C, but if needed it can also be cooled to −10 °C. The crystals are then collected, washed and dried. If it is pure enough it is used for the following steps, which take place at 0 till 5 °C. To produce o-Nitrobenzonitrile-14C (compound 2), the first component o-nitroaniline and (concentrated reagent grade) hydrochloric acid are put together with ice and water. Sodium nitrite, dissolved in water, is added to this thin slurry. After the formation of a pale-yellow solution, which indicates the completion of the diazotization reaction, the pH should be adjusted to 6. After this, the solution is introduced to a mixture of cuprous cyanide and toluene. At room temperature the toluene layer is removed. The aqueous layer is washed and dried and the purified product is isolated by crystallization. The third product is Anthranilamide-14C (compound 3). It is formed out of o-Nitrobenzonitrile-14C, which is first solved in ethanol and hydrazine hydrate. The solvent is heated subsequently, treated in a well-ventilated hood with small periodic charges, smaller than 10 mg, of Raney nickel. Under nitrogen atmosphere the ethanolic solution is clarified and dried.
==== Termination of Peter Rost (2005) ==== Peter Rost was vice president in charge of the endocrinology division at Pharmacia before its acquisition by Pfizer. During that time he raised concerns internally about kickbacks and off-label marketing of Genotropin, Pharmacia's human growth hormone drug. Pfizer reported the Pharmacia marketing practices to the FDA and Department of Justice; Rost was unaware of this and filed an FCA lawsuit against Pfizer. Pfizer kept him employed, but isolated him until the FCA suit was unsealed in 2005. The Justice Department declined to intervene, and Pfizer fired him, and he filed a wrongful termination suit against Pfizer. Pfizer won a summary dismissal of the case, with the court ruling that the evidence showed Pfizer had decided to fire Rost prior to learning of his whistleblower activities.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved AOD-9604 for weight loss or any other therapeutic indication. It remains an investigational compound studied in research settings.
The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a prohibited peptide hormone. Athletes under anti-doping rules are not permitted to use it. Its presence can trigger a doping violation.
It is a fragment of growth hormone rather than a substance that signals the pituitary to release more hormone. Studies have not shown a consistent rise in IGF-1 or full growth hormone. Its metabolic effects, if any, appear separate from those of the complete hormone.
It is a synthetic peptide based on a C-terminal fragment of human growth hormone. It is commonly referred to as hGH fragment 176-191 and is studied for metabolic effects rather than growth effects.